The founder of modern Czechoslovakia was Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937), a philosopher-statesman born of a Slovak father and a Czech mother. Eduard Beneš (1884–1948), cofounder with Masaryk of the Czechoslovak Republic, was foreign minister, premier, and president of the republic (1935–38 and 1940–48). Jan Masaryk (1886–1948), son of Tomáš G. Masaryk, was foreign minister of the government-in-exile and, until his mysterious death, of the reconstituted republic. Klement Gottwald (1896–1953) became a leader of the Czechoslovak Communist Party in 1929 and was the president of the republic from 1948 to 1953; Antonín Zápotocky´ (1884–1957), a trade union leader, was president from 1953 to 1957. Alexander Dubcek (1921–92) was secretary of the Czechoslovak Communist Party and principal leader of the 1968 reform movement that ended with Soviet intervention. Gen. Ludvík Svoboda (1895–1979) was president of the republic from 1968 to 1975. Gustáv Husák (1913–91) was general secretary of the Communist Party from 1969 to 1987; he became president of the republic in 1975. Parliamentary elections at the end of 1989 saw the rise of the playwright Vaclav Havel (b. 1936) to power. The Czech and Slovak republics decided to split in 1992. Havel was elected president of the Czech Republic in parliamentary elections. Vaclav Klaus was elected prime minister. Perhaps the two most famous Czechs are the religious reformer John Huss (Jan Hus, 1371–1415) and the theologian, educator, and philosopher John Amos Comenius (Jan Amos Komensky´, 1592–1670), an early advocate of universal education. The History of the Czech People by František Palacky´ (1798–1876) inspired Czech nationalism. Karel Havlicek (1821–56) was a leading political journalist, while Alois Jirásek (1851–1930) is known for his historical novels. The most famous woman literary figure is Bozena Nemcová (1820–62), whose Babi c ka (The Grandmother), depicting country life, is widely read to this day. A poet of renown, Jaroslav Vrchlicky´ (1853–1912) wrote voluminous poetry and translations. The Good Soldier Schweik by Jaroslav Hašek (1883–1923) is a renowned satire on militarism. Karel Capek (1890–1938), brilliant novelist, journalist, and playwright, is well known for his play R.U.R. (in which he coined the word robot ). Bedrich Smetana (1824–84), Antonín Dvorák (1841–1904), Leoš Janácek (1854–1928), and Bohuslav Martinu (1890–1959) are world-famous composers. The leading modern sculptor, Jan Stursa (1880–1925), is best known for his often-reproduced The Wounded.

Prominent 20th-century Czech personalities in culture and the arts include the writers Vladislav Vancura (1891–1942) and Ladislav Fuks (b.1923), the painter Jan Zrzavy´ (1890–1977), and the Czech filmmakers Jirí Trnka (1912–69) and Karel Zeman (1910–89). Leaders of the "new wave" of Czechoslovak cinema in the 1960s were Ján Kadár (1918–79) and Miloš Forman(b.1932), both expatriates after 1968. The best-known political dissidents in the 1970s and 1980s were the playwrights Pavel Kohout (b.1928) and Václav Havel (b.1936), and the sociologist Rudolf Battek (b.1924). The novelist Milan Kundera (b.1929), who has lived in France since 1975, is the best-known contemporary Czech writer. Two Czechs have become top world tennis players: Martina Navrátilová (b.1956), expatriate since 1975, and Ivan Lendl (b.1960).

There have been only two Czechoslovak Nobel Prize winners: in chemistry in 1959, Jaroslav Heyrovsky´ (1890–1967), who devised an electrochemical method of analysis; and in literature in 1984, the poet Jaroslav Seifert (1901–84).

As of 2000, there were 3.8 million main line and 4.3 million mobile cellular phones in use. Privatization and modernization of the telecommunication system was advancing steadily. In 1995 the waiting time for new telephone service was from five to ten years, but after a Kc130 billion investment for a system upgrade, waiting time was down to only about two months by 2000. Also in 2000, there were 31 AM and 304 FM radio stations and 150 television stations. The Czech Republic had 803 radios and 508 television sets per 1,000 people the same year. There were about 93 cable subscribers for every 1,000 people. There were about 122 personal computers per 1,000 people and more than 300 Internet service providers serving about 1.1 million people.

Formerly, the Communist Party and the government controlled all publishing. Formal censorship, via the government's Office for Press and Information, was lifted for three months during the Prague Spring of 1968, but prevailed after that time until the late 1980s. As of 1999, the government was said to fully uphold the legally provided freedoms of free speech and a free press.

The Czech Republic's 1991 Constitutional Law Guarantees its workers the right to form and join unions. Seventy percent of all Czech workers belong to a labor organization. The most important umbrella labor organization is the Czech and Slovak Confederation of Trade Unions, an organization that promotes democracy. The World Federation of Trade Unions has an office in Prague. Professional societies representing a wide variety of careers are also active. Important political associations include the Czech Democratic Left Movements and the Civic Movement.

The Academy of Science of the Czech Republic was founded in 1993 to support and encourage research and educational institutions involved in the fields of natural and technical sciences, social sciences, and humanities. Youth organizations include the Czech Association of Scouts and Guides (CASG), YMCA and YWCA, and chapters of The Red Cross Youth. National women's organizations include the Gender Studies Center in Prague and the Czech Union of Women.

Multinational organizations based in Prague include the International Association for Vehicle Systems Dynamics and the International Union of Speleology. There are national chapters of Amnesty International and the Red Cross.

Education is under state control and free, up to and including the university level. The government reports virtually no illiteracy. In 1996, 541,671 students were enrolled in 4,889 nine-year (or primary) schools, with 28,356 teachers. In the same year, secondary schools enrolled 1,190,725 students and employed 144,373 teachers. The pupil-teacher ratio at the primary level was 17 to 1 in 1999. In the same year, 90% of primary-schoolage children were enrolled in school, while 84% of those eligible attended secondary school. As of 1999, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.2 % of GDP.

The universities, colleges, and advanced schools in the Czech Republic had a total of 207,221 students in 1997. Universities in the current Czech Republic include the world-famous Charles University at Prague (founded 1348); Palacky University at Olomouc (1576; reestablished 1946); and J. E. Purkyne University at Brno (1919; reestablished 1945).

The National Library of the Czech Republic (5.8 million volumes in 2002) in Prague is the result of a 1958 amalgamation of six Prague libraries, including the venerable University Library, founded in 1348. It holds a valuable expensive collection of Mozart's papers and manuscripts. Other collections of significance are the university libraries at Brno and Olomouc. The State Research Library, including all six of its branches, holds more than six million volumes. In 1997, the Czech Republic had 6,245 public libraries with 53.7 million volumes and 1.4 million registered users.

Castles, mansions, churches, and other buildings of historical interest are public property. Many serve as museums and galleries. The largest museum in the country is the world-famous National Museum in Prague. The National Gallery, also in Prague, contains outstanding collections of medieval art and 17th-century and 18th-century Dutch paintings. There is also a remarkable Jewish Museum in Prague. Other outstanding museums and galleries are located in Brno and Plzen. The Prague Botanical Gardens are among the finest in Europe.

The Czech health care system combines compulsory universal health insurance with mixed public and private care. Health insurance is funded by individuals, employers, and the government. A number of physicians have private practices and maintain contracts with the insurance system for reimbursement of their services. As of 1999, there were an estimated 3 physicians and 8.7 hospital beds per 1,000 people. In 2002 there was one general practitioner per 1,780 persons over the age of 15. In 1999 total health care expenditure was estimated at 7.2% of GDP.

Health activities are directed by the Ministry of Health through the National Health Service. Factories and offices have health services, ranging from first-aid facilities in small enterprises to hospitals in the largest. All school children receive medical attention, including inoculations, X-rays, and annual examinations. In 1999, children up to one year of age were immunized for the following diseases: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 98%; and measles, 95%.

Special attention has been devoted to preventive medicine, with campaigns waged against tuberculosis, venereal diseases, cancer, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, and mental disturbances. Diseases of the circulatory system are the leading cause of death. Free guidance and care given to women and children have resulted in a low infant mortality rate of 4 per 1,000 live births in 2000. The total fertility rate in the same year was 1.2. The maternal mortality rate in 1998 was low at 14 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. Average life expectancy in 2000 was 75 years, with an overall death rate of 11 per 1,000 people. In 1999 there were 19 cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people. As of 1999, the number of people living with HIV/AIDS was estimated at 2,200 and deaths from AIDS that year were estimated at fewer than 100. HIV prevalence was 0.04 per 100 adults.

Currently, the lack of affordable housing, which inhibits labor mobility, is a major factor slowing economic growth in the Czech Republic. Problems include lack of financing, shortages of materials and labor, and a poorly developed infrastructure. In the mid-1990s the government drafted a new housing policy which, among other things, would lift existing restrictive legal provisions barring occupants from buying and reselling flats and differentiate rents according to quality and location of flats.

According to the 2001 census, there were about 4,369,239 dwelling units within the country with about 87% permanently occupied. About 1,983,521 dwellings are houses. There is an average of 2.69 people per household.